Enhanced descriptions from Syndetics:

This comprehensive text explores the entire range of research methodologies in psychology (experimental and nonexperimental), using a programmatic approach to introduce topics and then build on earlier presentations to increase student understanding. Research concepts, rather than cookbook-like strategies, are emphasized in order to help students develop an understanding of scientific research. The research process is organized around a coherent descriptive model of research, and coverage of ethics and statistics is integrated throughout. Research Methods is accompanied by a CD-ROM that includes the student version of SPSS.

Table of contents provided by Syndetics

• To the Instructor (p. xiii)
• To the Student (p. xxi)
• 1 Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment (p. 1)
• Science Is a Way of Thinking (p. 1)
• Asking Questions (p. 2)
• Science and Art (p. 3)
• Acquiring Knowledge (p. 7)
• Tenacity (p. 7)
• Intuition (p. 7)
• Authority (p. 8)
• Rationalism (p. 8)
• Empiricism (p. 9)
• Science (p. 10)
• Emergence of Science (p. 11)
• Early Civilization (p. 11)
• Greek Science (p. 13)
• Medieval Science (p. 15)
• The Scientific Revolution (p. 17)
• The History of Psychology (p. 20)
• The Science of Psychology (p. 24)
• Chapter Summary (p. 25)
• Review Exercises (p. 26)
• 2 Research Is a Process of Inquiry (p. 28)
• A Process of Inquiry (p. 28)
• Basic Assumptions of Science (p. 28)
• Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs (p. 29)
• Conceptual Models in Science (p. 32)
• Inductive and Deductive Thinking (p. 35)
• Models and Theories in Science (p. 37)
• A Model of the Research Process (p. 39)
• Phases of Research (p. 39)
• Levels of Constraint (p. 46)
• Chapter Summary (p. 51)
• Review Exercises (p. 52)
• 3 The Starting Point: Asking Questions (p. 54)
• Asking Questions (p. 54)
• Pursuing One's Own Personal Interests (p. 54)
• Following Up on the Work of Others (p. 54)
• Applied and Basic Research (p. 55)
• Refining Questions for Research (p. 56)
• Types of Variables in Research (p. 59)
• Classifying Variables Based on Their Nature (p. 59)
• Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research (p. 61)
• Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables (p. 63)
• Research Ethics (p. 64)
• Ethical Guides for Human Research (p. 64)
• Ethical Principles in Research with Animals (p. 68)
• Chapter Summary (p. 71)
• Review Exercises (p. 72)
• 4 Data and the Nature of Measurement (p. 74)
• Research Variables (p. 74)
• Measurement (p. 75)
• Scales of Measurement (p. 77)
• Nominal Scales (p. 78)
• Ordinal Scales (p. 78)
• Interval Scales (p. 79)
• Ratio Scales (p. 79)
• Measuring and Controlling Variables (p. 80)
• Measurement Error (p. 81)
• Operational Definitions (p. 81)
• Reliability (p. 84)
• Effective Range (p. 86)
• Validity (p. 86)
• Scale Attenuation Effects (p. 87)
• The Need for Objective Measurement (p. 89)
• Chapter Summary (p. 90)
• Review Exercises (p. 91)
• 5 Statistical Analysis of Data (p. 93)
• Individual Differences and Statistical Procedures (p. 94)
• Descriptive Statistics (p. 95)
• Frequency Distributions (p. 95)
• Graphical Representation of Data (p. 98)
• Summary Statistics (p. 102)
• Inferential Statistics (p. 112)
• Populations and Samples (p. 112)
• The Null Hypothesis (p. 113)
• Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels (p. 114)
• Type I and Type II Errors (p. 114)
• Testing for Mean Differences (p. 115)
• The Power of a Statistical Test (p. 116)
• Statistical versus Practical Significance (p. 117)
• Effect Size (p. 117)
• Meta-Analysis (p. 117)
• Chapter Summary (p. 118)
• Review Exercises (p. 118)
• 6 Field Research: I. Naturalistic Observation, Case-Study Research, and Survey Research (p. 120)
• The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research (p. 121)
• Examples of Naturalistic Observation (p. 122)
• Examples of Case-Study Research (p. 123)
• The Value of Low-Constraint Methods (p. 125)
• Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research (p. 125)
• Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research (p. 126)
• Problem Statements and Hypotheses in Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Research (p. 129)
• Using Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Methods (p. 130)
• Making Observations (p. 131)
• Ethical Issues (p. 132)
• Sampling of Participants (p. 133)
• Sampling of Situations (p. 133)
• Sampling of Behaviors (p. 134)
• Evaluating and Interpreting Data (p. 134)
• Limitations of Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Methods (p. 135)
• Poor Representativeness (p. 135)
• Poor Replicability (p. 136)
• Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research: The Ex Post Facto Fallacy (p. 136)
• Limitations of the Observer (p. 137)
• Going Beyond the Data (p. 137)
• Survey Research (p. 139)
• Types of Surveys (p. 139)
• Steps in Survey Research (p. 140)
• The Form of the Survey Instrument (p. 140)
• Developing the Survey Instrument (p. 141)
• The Participants in a Survey: Populations and Samples (p. 143)
• Research Design of Surveys (p. 145)
• Chapter Summary (p. 146)
• Review Exercises (p. 147)
• 7 Correlational and Differential Methods of Research (p. 150)
• Correlational Research Methods (p. 150)
• Differential Research Methods (p. 152)
• Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research (p. 152)
• Artifacts and Confounding Variables (p. 154)
• What Makes Differential Research Higher-Constraint Than Correlational Research? (p. 155)
• When to Use Correlational and Differential Research (p. 157)
• Conducting Correlational Research (p. 158)
• Problem Statements for Correlational Research (p. 158)
• Measuring the Variables (p. 158)
• Sampling (p. 159)
• Analyzing the Data (p. 160)
• Interpreting the Correlation (p. 160)
• Conducting Differential Research (p. 161)
• Problem Statements for Differential Research (p. 162)
• Measuring the Variables (p. 163)
• Selecting Appropriate Control Groups (p. 163)
• Sampling (p. 166)
• Analyzing the Data (p. 168)
• Interpreting the Data (p. 168)
• Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research (p. 169)
• Problems in Determining Causation (p. 169)
• Confounding Variables (p. 171)
• Chapter Summary (p. 172)
• Review Exercises (p. 172)
• 8 Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity (p. 174)
• Hypothesis Testing (p. 175)
• Starting the Research with an Initial Idea (p. 176)
• Statement of the Problem (p. 176)
• Operational Definitions (p. 179)
• Research Hypothesis (p. 179)
• The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis (p. 180)
• Testing the Research Hypothesis (p. 181)
• Validity and Threats to Validity (p. 186)
• Statistical Validity (p. 186)
• Construct Validity (p. 187)
• External Validity (p. 187)
• Internal Validity (p. 188)
• Major Confounding Variables (p. 190)
• Maturation (p. 190)
• History (p. 191)
• Testing (p. 192)
• Instrumentation (p. 192)
• Regression to the Mean (p. 192)
• Selection (p. 192)
• Attrition (p. 193)
• Diffusion of Treatment (p. 193)
• Sequence Effects (p. 193)
• Subject and Experimenter Effects (p. 194)
• Subject Effects (p. 194)
• Experimenter Effects (p. 195)
• Validity, Control, and Constraint (p. 197)
• Chapter Summary (p. 197)
• Review Exercises (p. 197)
• 9 Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity (p. 199)
• Threats to Validity (p. 199)
• General Control Procedures (p. 200)
• Preparation of the Setting (p. 200)
• Response Measurement (p. 200)
• Replication (p. 201)
• Control Over Subject and Experimenter Effects (p. 202)
• Single- and Double-Blind Procedures (p. 202)
• Automation (p. 204)
• Using Objective Measures (p. 204)
• Multiple Observers (p. 205)
• Using Deception (p. 205)
• Control Through Participant Selection and Assignment (p. 207)
• Participant Selection (p. 207)
• Participant Assignment (p. 212)
• Control Through Experimental Design (p. 216)
• Chapter Summary (p. 219)
• Review Exercises (p. 220)
• 10 Control of Variance Through Experimental Design: Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs (p. 222)
• Experimental Design (p. 222)
• Variance (p. 223)
• Forms of Variance (p. 223)
• Controlling Variance in Research (p. 226)
• Nonexperimental Approaches (p. 228)
• Ex Post Facto Studies (p. 229)
• Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies (p. 229)
• Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies (p. 230)
• Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies (p. 231)
• Experimental Designs: Testing One Independent Variable (p. 233)
• Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design (p. 233)
• Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design (p. 234)
• Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design (p. 235)
• Solomon's Four-Group Design (p. 236)
• Statistical Analyses of Completely Randomized Designs (p. 238)
• t-Test (p. 238)
• Analysis of Variance (p. 239)
• Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA (p. 241)
• Other Experimental Designs (p. 242)
• Chapter Summary (p. 243)
• Review Exercises (p. 243)
• 11 Control of Variance Through Experimental Design: Single-Variable, Correlated-Groups Designs (p. 246)
• Correlated-Groups Designs (p. 247)
• Within-Subjects Design (p. 248)
• Using Within-Subjects Designs (p. 248)
• Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs (p. 249)
• Strengths and Weakness of Within-Subjects Designs (p. 251)
• Matched-Subjects Design (p. 254)
• Using Matched-Subjects Designs (p. 255)
• Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs (p. 257)
• Strengths and Weakness of Matched-Subjects Designs (p. 258)
• Single-Subject Designs (p. 259)
• Chapter Summary (p. 259)
• Review Exercises (p. 260)
• 12 Control of Variance Through Experimental Design: Factorial Designs (p. 262)
• Factorial Designs (p. 262)
• Main Effects and Interactions (p. 264)
• Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs (p. 268)
• An Example: Children's Dark-Fears Study (p. 272)
• Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs (p. 276)
• Variations of Basic Factorial Design (p. 278)
• Within-Subjects (Repeated-Measures) Factorial (p. 279)
• Mixed Designs (p. 279)
• ANOVA: A Postscript (p. 282)
• Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) (p. 283)
• Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) (p. 285)
• Chapter Summary (p. 285)
• Review Exercises (p. 286)
• 13 Field Research: II. A Second Look at Research in Natural Settings (p. 288)
• Conducting Field Research (p. 288)
• Reasons for Doing Field Research (p. 289)
• Difficulties in Field Research (p. 291)
• Quasi-Experimental Designs (p. 291)
• Nonequivalent Control-Group Design (p. 292)
• Interrupted Time-Series Design (p. 296)
• Single-Subject Designs (p. 301)
• Reversal Design (ABA Design) (p. 303)
• Multiple Baseline Design (p. 306)
• Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design (p. 307)
• Program Evaluation (p. 309)
• Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research (p. 310)
• Issues of Control (p. 311)
• Typical Program Evaluation Designs (p. 312)
• Program Evaluation: An Example (p. 313)
• Chapter Summary (p. 315)
• Review Exercises (p. 315)
• 14 Final Preparations Before Data Collection (p. 317)
• Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures (p. 317)
• An Initial Example (p. 318)
• A Decision-Tree Model (p. 319)
• Secondary Analyses (p. 328)
• Caveats and Disclaimers (p. 329)
• Pre-Data Check (p. 329)
• I. Initial Problem Definition (p. 330)
• II. Clarity of the Research Hypothesis (or Hypotheses) (p. 330)
• III. Statistical Analysis Procedures (p. 332)
• IV. Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions (p. 332)
• V. Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation (for Experimental Research) (p. 333)
• VI. Adequacy of the Dependent Measures (p. 333)
• VII. Are All Controls in Place? (p. 333)
• VIII. Participants (p. 334)
• IX. Preparation of the Setting (p. 335)
• X. Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures (p. 335)
• Chapter Summary (p. 335)
• Review Exercises (p. 335)
• 15 Research Methodology: An Evolving Discipline (p. 338)
• New Directions in Research Methodology (p. 339)
• The Evolution of Research Questions and Methods (p. 339)
• New Statistical Methods (p. 341)
• The Impact of Other Disciplines (p. 346)
• Multidisciplinary Research (p. 347)
• Moving Research Out of the Laboratory (p. 348)
• The Impact of Computers (p. 348)
• Science: An Interaction Between Empiricism and Rationalism (p. 353)
• Review Exercises (p. 354)
• Appendix A Using the CD and Web Supplements (p. 355)
• Resources Available on the CD and Web Site (p. 355)
• CD (p. 355)
• Web Site (p. 355)
• Accessing the CD Material (p. 356)
• Using a Web Browser (p. 356)
• Table of Contents and Index (p. 358)
• Accessing Material Referenced in the Text (p. 359)
• Using the Study Guide (p. 359)
• Using SPSS for Windows (p. 360)
• Accessing the Web Material (p. 361)
• Appendix Summary (p. 362)
• Appendix B Writing a Research Report: APA Publication Style (p. 364)
• Structure of a Research Article (p. 364)
• Writing the Research Report (p. 365)
• Using Levels of Headings to Organize (p. 365)
• Sections of a Research Report (p. 366)
• Writing Style (p. 371)
• Appendix Summary (p. 371)
• Appendix C Conducting Library Research (p. 372)
• Using the Library (p. 372)
• Library Resources (p. 372)
• The Reference Librarian (p. 373)
• How Research Materials Are Organized (p. 373)
• Primary Sources (p. 373)
• Secondary Sources (p. 374)
• Finding the Relevant Research (p. 374)
• Abstracting Services (p. 374)
• Subject or Keyword Services (p. 375)
• Literature Citation Indexes (p. 376)
• Search Strategies (p. 376)
• Searching by Topic (p. 376)
• Searching Backward (p. 378)
• Searching Forward (p. 378)
• Appendix Summary (p. 379)
• Appendix D Random Numbers (p. 380)
• Appendix E Computerized Statistical Analyses (p. 385)
• Organizing and Entering the Data (p. 385)
• Coding Data Before Entry (p. 386)
• Principles of the Windows as Environment (p. 388)
• Entering Data and Defining the Variables (p. 391)
• Data Analysis Using SPSS for Windows (p. 398)
• Descriptive Statistics (p. 398)
• Inferential Statistics (p. 403)
• Appendix Summary (p. 407)
• Appendix F Selected Answers to Exercises (p. 410)
• Glossary (p. 416)
• References (p. 437)
• Name Index (p. 446)
• Subject Index (p. 448)